Band Theory of Metals

Taking the help of valence electrons, metals conducts electricity. Metals’ atomic orbitals or electron cloud have the same energy which combines forming molecular orbital whose energy is closer to one another in order to form the ‘band’. In condition when the band is filled partially or it overlaps with another high energy-free (unoccupied C.B i.e. … Read more

Electrical and magnetic properties of solids

Electrical Properties of Solids Classification of Solids on the Basis of Electrical Conductivity: Solids display a deviating range of electrical conductivities, expanding of magnitude right from 10 to the power of (-20) to 10 to the power of (7) ohm-1 m–1. Solids can be divided into 3 types on their conductivities’ basis. 1. Conductors: The … Read more

Carcinogenicity and toxicity of hydrocarbons

Aromatic hydrocarbons – carcinogenicity and toxicity Most polynuclear hydrocarbons are carcinogenic in nature. Polynuclear hydrocarbons contain two or more benzene rings fused together. These are also called polycyclic aromatic compounds. For example, naphthalene contains two benzene rings fused together. Other common examples are anthracene, phenanthracene, etc. the major source of these polynuclear hydrocarbons is coal … Read more

Directive influence of the various functional group in mono substituted benzene

Aromatic hydrocarbons- The Directive influence of the various functional group in mono-substituted benzene As we have learned, all the six hydrogen atoms of benzene rings are equivalent. Therefore, replacement of any one of these six hydrogen atoms by any substitution always forms a single mono substituted product. However, when mono-substituted benzene is subjected to further … Read more

Friedel craft’s alkylation and acylation

Aromatic hydrocarbons- Friedel craft’s alkylation and acylation Alkylation: on the treatment with an alkyl halide in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, benzene forms an alkylbenzene. The reaction is also called Friedel-crafts alkylation reaction. In this reaction, a hydrogen atom in the benzene ring is replaced by an alkyl group. For example, Mechanism of Friedel-craft … Read more

Aromatic hydrocarbons – halogenation

The replacement of a hydrogen atom in the ring of an arene by a halogen atom (F, Cl, Br, I) is called halogenations. Few types of an aromatic compound such as phenols react without the help of catalyst but the less reactive substrates such as benzene reacts in the presence of Lewis acids as a … Read more

Aromatic hydrocarbon – nitration

Nitration is a type of substitution reaction of aromatic hydrocarbon. In these reactions, one or more hydrogen atoms in the benzene ring get replaced by other atom or groups. In the context of organic compounds, let us first understand the importance of nitrogen. Nitrogen is necessary for many days to day things we depend on … Read more

Ozonolysis

Ozonolysis is the method of oxidatively cleaving the alkenes by using the ozone which is a reactive molecule of oxygen. This process allows the double or triple bonds of the carbon-carbon to be replaced by the double bonds with the oxygen. It is an organic reaction, where unsaturated bonds of the alkenes are cleaved with … Read more

Mechanism of electrophilic substitution reaction

Aromatic hydrocarbons – mechanism of electrophilic substitution reaction The orbital structure of the benzene makes it quite clear that the π-electron cloud lying above and below the plane of the benzene ring is held loosely and is thus, available to the electron seeking reagents i.e., electrophiles. Therefore, the substitution reaction in benzene is electrophilic in … Read more

Mechanism of Electrophilic Addition

Usually, the alkenes exhibit a wide range of electrophilic addition reactions. The addition of hydrogen halides such as the hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromide is a significant example of the electrophilic addition reaction of the alkenes. Generally, the electrophilic addition to the alkenes starts with the process that pi electrons attack an electrophile and make … Read more